Relay-Version: version B 2.10 5/3/83; site utzoo.UUCP Posting-Version: version B 2.10.1 6/24/83; site cbscc.UUCP Path: utzoo!linus!security!genrad!grkermit!masscomp!clyde!burl!we13!ihnp4!cbosgd!cbscc!pmd From: pmd@cbscc.UUCP Newsgroups: net.misc Subject: The Probability of Life from Non-life Message-ID: <1582@cbscc.UUCP> Date: Sun, 29-Jan-84 14:55:09 EST Article-I.D.: cbscc.1582 Posted: Sun Jan 29 14:55:09 1984 Date-Received: Wed, 1-Feb-84 01:28:44 EST Organization: AT&T Bell Laboratories, Columbus Lines: 375 From "Origins Research" Vol. 1, No. 3 Sept.-Dec. 1978 Used by permission. Paul Dubuc. THE PROBABILITY OF LIFE FROM NON-LIFE By Terry Brown Terry Brown completed two years of undergraduate study at the University of California, Riverside and received his B.A. degree in biology from the University of California at San Diego. He is currently [at the time of publication] working toward a Masters degree in Public Health at Loma Linda University. The following was written for a Human Physiology class during Summer, 1978. In this paper some of the basic facts of biochemistry which pertain to the supposed mechanistic formation of prebiotic proteins on the *early earth* are examined. Problems with the required primitive environment are briefly mentioned including 1) a reducing atmosphere, 2) ultraviolet radiation, and 3) underwater, steam and ice theories. The exclusive presence of L form amino acids in living organisms is discussed. Finally the probability of life evolving from non-life is shown to be hoplessly small, even after making fourteen non-trivial concessions. When considering the theory of evolution most people think of the progression of fish to reptile or primate to man, but there are many serious objections at an even earlier stage--the biochemical transition from non-biological matter to the first living organism. Evolutionists generally postulate that in a primitive atmosphere, over billions of years, natural elements combined to form amino acids which in turn joined to form proteins. These proteins along with sugars, phosphates, organic bases for nucleic acids, lipids for membranes and other special-purpose organic molecules combined to form the first living cell that had the capacity for metabolism and reproduction. Reducing Atmosphere Needed It is interesting to note that two very common substances interfere with the formation of amino acids and peptide bonds, the bond linking amino acid units together to form peptides (protein). Oxygen (O2) inhibits the formation of amino acids while liquid water (H2O) acts stereochemically to block the formation of the peptide bonds between amino acids.[1] With these well known chemical facts in mind, it is not surprising to notice that such men as Stanley Miller (at UCSD, and Nobel Prize winner for his work on abiotic formation of amino acids) postulate that the atmosphere of the primitive earth contained no free oxygen. Such an atmosphere is called a *reducing atmosphere*. This is a tremendously significant assumption for evolutionists to make, and there is of course no conclusive geological or meteorological evidence for this idea. The assumption of a reducing atmosphere presents an overwhelming problem for the molecules-to-man theorists. Without free oxygen (O2) there is no known way to form ozone (O3), and without ozone, the tremendously powerful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun would completely sterilize the surface of the earth. Not only would growing polymers of biochemically active compounds be destroyed by this UV radiation, but certainly any life forms on the surface would be destroyed in rapid fashion. Recognizing the lack of protection from ultraviolet rays on the surface, some scientists have postulated that the first macromolecules of life were formed underwater. This, of course, takes care of the UV problem, but we have to remember that liquid water prevents the overlap of atomic orbitals needed for the pepticle bond to form. To get around this problem, some scientists have postulated formation of proteins on ice or in steam clouds. This is admittedly a clever approach to getting rid of liquid water, but leads to two inescapable problems. First is the fact that heat in excess of 100 deg. C destroys (denatures) every known protein by ripping apart the peptide bond. So much for the formation of long polymers of amino acid chains. With the *ice theory* one must recognize that chemical reactions are slowed tremendously at low temperatures, and it can be shown that below 0 deg. C peptide bonds cannot be formed without the presence of catalysts known as enzymes. Note that all enzymes are proteins. Where did the first enzymes come from? D vs. L Amino Acids There is another extremely significant fact of organic chemistry that I would like to note at this point. This is the problem of *handedness* and optical activity of organic molecules with an asymetric carbon atom (amino acids, for example). These molecules can exist in either the D or L conformation, mirror images of each other, called stereoisomers, and they are chemically indistinguishable from one another except for their ability to reflect polarized light. Whenever amino acids are synthesized in the laboratory, the yield is almost exactly a 50-50 mixture of the D and L forms. This is a very significant finding, and there is not one reputable chemist in the world that will deny this basic observation. But, here's the rub -- excluding a few insignificant exceptions, it seems that every amino acid in every protein in every living organism on earth is in the L configuration. This is pretty amazing when you consider the fact that there are no chemical differences in the D and L form other than their crystal structure. In the experiments done by Miller and others, simulating supposed primeval earth atmospheric conditions (conditions chosen for their innate tendency to thermodynamically favor the formation of amino acids), the amino acids formed were always a racemic mixture (D and L forms in equal amounts). In addition, there is always a special trap employed to remove these products because they would be destroyed if they remained in the reaction media for only a short time. The conditions leading to their formation also lead to their destruction. Now it can be seen that two problems occur at this point. First what is the proposed mechanism by which these newly formed amino acids are removed from the reaction system? In Miller's experiment there was an extremely sophisticated artificial chemical trap which removed these amino acids immediately upon their formation. Secondly, as was noted earlier, and as has been observed in all laboratory syntheses of amino acids and polypeptides, the amino acids formed are racemic mixtures of the two isomers. But all living organisms happen to come into existence with only the L form of amino acids in its protein molecules? Many scientists have tried to explain this, but as of yet there is *no satisfactory answer*. As will be shown soon, the probabilities involved in the selection of either all D or all L amino acids under natural conditions are embarrassingly miniscule. Up to this point we have encountered several insurmountable problems for the chance, mechanistic formation of some of the macromolecules upon which life is dependent. There is the necessity of excluding free oxygen from the reaction system, with the resultant lack of ozone to preserve the products of the elaborate biochemicals. Next, the problems of excluding liquid water, which interestingly enough has not been found anywhere else in the known universe (it either exists frozen with CO2 as on Mars, or in vapor form in the vacuum of space). Then there is this bothersome problem with *handedness*, all amino acids occurring in living tissues exist in the L form, while in the non-living state they are formed in racemic mixtures (equal D and L). It is on this last observation that the science of probability enters the picture. Please note that we have not even mentioned the genetic code which is responsible for the sequencing and manufacture of proteins, which takes place in a complex series of chemical reactions which would be utterly impossible without the assistance of highly ordered proteins called enzymes. The Complexity of Living Organisms How complex are living organisms, even the smallest and simplest ones? Dr. Harold J. Morowitz of Yale University has done extensive research for the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) to discover the theoretical limits for the simplest free-living thing which could duplicate itself. Stated more technically, he was looking for the minimal biological entity capable of self-replication in an autonomous fashion. He took into consideration the minimum operating equipment needed and the space it would require, also giving attention to electrical properties and the hazards of thermal motion. From his studies comes the conclusion that the smallest such theoretical entity would require 239 or more individual protein molecules.[2] This is not very much smaller (simpler) that the smallest actually known autonomous living organism, which is the miniscule, bacteria-like Mycoplasma hominis H39. It has around 600 different kinds of proteins.[3] From present scientific knowledge, there is no reason to believe that anything smaller ever existed. Using data provided by Morowitz, it can be calculated that the average protein molecule in the theoretical minimal living organism would contain around 445 amino acid units. Let's look at the probability of one of these protein chains being all L conformation. There are 20 commonly occurring amino acids, 19 of which are optically active (glycine is not, as it has no asymetric carbon atom). In many bacteria glycine makes up just over 8 percent of the total amino acid molecules, so in this theoretical protein we estimate that there will be 35 glycine residues, leaving 410 "spots" for the other 19 types of amino acids. Since these amino acids are presumed to have been formed naturally in the primitive environment, they would have occurred in statistically equal amounts of L and D forms. Now ... the probability of all the amino acids being L in this protein molecule is 1 in 2^410 (or 1 in 10^123). This is an extraordinarily small probability, but even if such a molecule did occur, there would need to be at least 238 more molecules similar to it to have a complete cell. The odds of this happening (all 239 chains of 410 amino acid length) are only 1 in 10^29345. To get an idea of the magnitude of this exponential number, it is estimated that there are 10^78 atoms in the entire universe. The Probability of Abiogenesis If one wants to be completely overwhelmed with the improbability of chance formation of life, he should look at a theoretical experiment done by James Coppedge of the Center for Probability Research in Biology, located in Northridge, California.[4] Recognizing the extreme improbability of chance arranging ordered molecules, he does a series of calculations based on Morowitz' simplest life form. In this experiment he gives chance a chance, by making fourteen concessions, [see end of article] all fourteen of which are highly extreme, and are offered in the conviction that "if chance fails under such extreme conditions, it should indicate clearly that perhaps it is unreasonable to rely on it at all in the quest for the way life began". Now, without detailing his calculations, the odds against one minimum set of proteins happening in the entire history of the earth are 10^119701 to 1. This figure is hopelessly large, and exceeds our ability to imagine a number so large (and a chance so small). Coppedge gives an imaginary illustration to get a palpable sense of the enormous dimensions of these numbers.[5] He calls it "the case of the traveling amoeba". Imagine an indestructible amoeba, and a most tenacious one, whose task it is to carry all the atoms of the universe across an imaginary string which is 30 billion light years long (the diameter of the universe). It moves at the rate of one inch per year, and there are 10^28 inches in this length of string. It therefore takes 2x10^28 years for a round trip, and the amoeba only carries one atom at a time across this long trail and then dumps it, only to return for more atoms. The time it would take to carry the entire universe across would be the time for one round trip multiplied by the number of atoms in the universe (10^78). This gives us 10^107 years, give or take a millenium. But Coppedge points out that his calculations revealed that it would take chance 10^171 years to form one usable protein of average length. If we divide that by the length of time it takes to move one universe by slow amoeba, we arrive at the astounding conclusion that: The amoeba could haul 10^64 universes across the entire diameter of the known universe during the expected time it would take for only one protein to form by chance, under those 14 conditions so favorable to chance! Imagine this--even if the amoeba had moved had moved *only one inch* during the 15 billion years that the universe is supposed to have existed, it would still be able to carry 6x10^53 universes across the string while one protein is forming. Sooner or later our minds come to accept the idea that it is not worth waiting for chance to manufacture a protein, let alone to come up with the DNA-RNA-ribosome system for self replication. Well, most of our minds come to accept this idea. But consider this remarkable statement by Harvard professor George Wald: The important point is that since the origin of life belongs in the category of at-least-once phenomena, time is on its side. However improbable we regard this event,... given enough time it will almost certainly happen at least once... Time is in fact the hero of plot. Given so much time, the 'impossible' becomes possible, the possible probable, and the probable virtually certain. One has only to wait: time itself performs miracles.[6] But it is clear to the unbiased, intelligent observer that there is not nearly enough time available to perform such a miracle. Conclusion In concluding this section I would add that the whole problem of abiogenesis -- that is, life from formerly non-living chemicals -- devolves upon the method by which the first self-replicating system evolved. The insuperable barrier, however, is that DNA can only be replicated with the specific help of certain protein molecules (enzymes) which in turn can only be produced by the command and direction of DNA. Each depends on the other an both must be present for replication to take place. Freeman J. Dyson, of the Institute of Advanced Studies, wrote in 1971: Nature has been kinder to us that we had any right to expect. As we look out into the universe and identify the many accidents of physics and astronomy that have worked together to our benefit, it almost seems as if the universe must in some sense known that we were coming. Professor Dyson goes on to assert: I believe the universe is friendly. I see no reason to suppose that the cosmic accidents that provided so abundantly for our welfare here on earth, will no do the same for us wherever in the universe we choose to go... I hope that with this article I may have persuaded a few people... to look to the sky with hopeful eyes. This stops just short of the most logical step of all -- to look to the sky not with hope that the *cosmic accidents* will be friendly, but in gratitude, trust, and obedience to the creator who logically must be back of these events that have provided for our welfare. **************** The fourteen assumptions (or concessions) giving chance numerous advantages which would not have actually existed at the time of the presumed evolution of the first living thing: 1. Assume that the primitive atmosphere was as the evolutionists claim. 2. Suppose that all 20 amino acids did form naturally and in the right proportions, by the action of ultraviolet rays, lightning, and heat. 3. Presume that the amino acids were formed only in the L configuration. 4. In the calculations which follow, assume the average length of protein is 400 amino acids. 5. Postulate that all the atoms on earth have been used to form amino acids. 6. Consider all the formed amino acids are grouped in sets. 7. Let these groupings be magically protected from the destructive effect of UV rays, especially the damaging ones at 2600 Angstroms wavelength. 8. Concede that all the amino acids would automatically unite, without the need for the 7 kcal of bond energy or enzyme catalysis, etc. 9. Allow one substitution in each chain, even at the "active sites", with no ill effects. 10. Assume a rate of chain formation at the fantastically rapid rate of one-third of a ten-million-billionth second per chain formation (150 thousand trillion times the rate of reaction in living things, based on E. coli protein formation rates). 11. Every unusable chain is instantaneously dismantled, its component amino acids being used again in the reaction, which occurs at a rate of 10^24 per year per set. 12. If a usable sequence is obtained, the action will stop and this protein preserved for use in the 239 chains needed. 13. If the 239 chains are made, they will be assumed to be able to merge into one group, ready to work together in a living system (no geographical separation). 14. Assume the universe to be 15 billion years old and the earth 5 billion. ****************** References 1. Lehninger, Albert L. _Biochemistry_, Worth Publishers, New York, 1970, pp. 774, 777. 2. Morowitz, H.J. _Energy Flow in Biology_, New York Academic Press, 1968, p. 84. 3. Hans R. Bode and Harold J. Morowitz, "Size and Structure of the Mycoplasma Hominis H39 Chromosome", in the _Journal of Molecular Biology_, Vol. 23, 1967, page 98. 4. James F. Coppedge, _Evolution: Possible or Impossible?_, Zondervan, 1973, pages 105-115. 5. ibid., pages 119, 120. 6. Henry Morris, _Scientific Creationism_, Creation-Life Publishers, San Diego, page 66, quote of George Wald, "The Origin of Life", in _The Physics and Chemistry of Life_, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1955, page 12. 7. Freeman J. Dyson, "Energy in the Universe", in _Scientific American_, vol. 224, Sept. 1971, page 59.